Holidays Gifts For Your MySQL DBA - 2020 Edition

 Dear Family, Friend, Co-Worker, or Acutance of a MySQL DBA,

You MySQL DBA knows that shopping for them this time of year is very hard as all they really need is a new instance of MySQL to make them ecstatic.   However they have downloaded this list of gifts, have printed this out, and circled some gift ideas from this blog -- to make it easier for you. 

1. Singing Tesla Coil Music Kit Plasma Loudspeaker Wireless Transmission Experiment Desktop 

Link

Musical Tesla Coil (also known as "Singing Tesla Coil"), sometimes called a zeusaphone, thoramin or musical lightning, is a form of plasma speaker. The music Tesla coil, It is a variety of a solid state Tesla coil that has been modified to produce musical tones by modulating its spark output. The resulting pitch is a low fidelity square wave like sound reminiscent of an analog synthesizer. The high-frequency signal acts in effect as a carrier wave; its frequency is significantly above human-audible sound frequencies, so that digital modulation can reproduce a recognizable pitch. The musical tone results directly from the passage of the spark through the air.

2. A new Cup

Link

Yes, a new mug is needed as we approach 2021!

3. Alternative Cup

Link

Maybe two new mugs! This time with a possibly naughty message!

4. Star Wars Death Star Popcorn Maker - Hot Air Style with Removable Bowl

Link

HEALTHIER CHOICE - Uses hot-air popping method so no oil required. It makes popcorn a perfect snack for the whole family.

EASY OPERATION - Add kernels into the main chamber using the provided measuring cup, turn on the unit and watch the magic happen through the transparent cover!

HIGH EFFICIENCY - Pops evenly and quickly, with up to a 98% popping rate. Unique channel ensures constant hot air to pop about as quickly as a microwave (2-3 minutes).

5. A New Light Switch Cover

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Change up that boring switch plate with something a little quirky!

6. A new blanket or pillow

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Yes, that MySQL DBA needs at least one of these too!

7. New shirt

Link 

With the closing of many in person conferences, your DBA may be lacking in t-shirts so get them this one!

Running MySQL 5.6? It reaches End Of Live Status in TWO MONTHS

  This is yet another reminder that MySQL 5.6 reaches End of Life status in February 2021.  I have been sending out such reminders since February of 2020. But in my presentations this year when I bring up the 5.6 EOL, there are a lot of users out there that are shocked to hear the news. In one of my November presentations (virtual) I had a very upset audience member who wondered why I was not making more of a big deal out of the EOL date.

    Wikipedia says ""End-of-life" ("EOL") is a term used with respect to a product supplied to customers, indicating that the product is in the end of its useful life (from the vendor's point of view), and a vendor stops marketing, selling, or rework sustaining it. (The vendor may simply intend to limit or end support for the product.)" 

What does this mean those of you running MySQL 5.6 will not be getting bug fixes, will find it much harder to get support, and will get social ostracized by all. Well, maybe not that last one.  But you life is going to be tougher.  As someone who loves old cars I can attest that even the simplest of spare parts or practical repair knowledge on unique features gets much harder to find over time.  And like my buddy who still supports dBase II, you will find your world curtailed.

So please upgrade to MySQL 5.7 or better yet 8.0.   Those of you running 5.7 can use the upgrade checker utility to help you upgrade to 8.0.

Utah Oracle Users Group December 3rd presentation on New MySQL 8.0 Features

 Want to learn more about new features in MySQL 8.0? The folks at the Utah Oracle Users Group are opening their December 03, 2020 meeting to all.  It will run from 6:30 PM - 8:00 PM Mountain Time. 

Please RSVP https://us02web.zoom.us/j/89659298608?pwd=QVhIRDcvV0EwNnF

Live Events This Week and More Basic Videos

    The Granite State Code Camp is this Saturday November 14th and I will be speaking on new Features in MySQL 8.

    Sadly Babbletech is going to be canceled but you can catch my talk on MySQL Indexes and Histograms that was recorded at the All Things Open Conference. 

  And I am slowly adding more videos to my Dave's MySQL Basics series for beginners.  Please see them on Youtube or Github. If you have a subject you want to see sooner than I have planned, please let me know!

MySQL 5.6 End of Life Reminder

 This is a reminder that MySQL 5.6 reaches End of Life status in February 2021.  I have been sending out such reminders since February of this year. But in my presentations this year when I bring up the 5.6 EOL, there are a lot of users out there that are surprised to hear the news.

    Wikipedia says ""End-of-life" ("EOL") is a term used with respect to a product supplied to customers, indicating that the product is in the end of its useful life (from the vendor's point of view), and a vendor stops marketing, selling, or rework sustaining it. (The vendor may simply intend to limit or end support for the product.)" 

So those of you running MySQL 5.6 will not be getting bug fixes, will find it much harder to get support, and will get social ostracized by all. Well, maybe not that last one.  But you life is going to be tougher.  As someone who loves old cars I can attest that even the simplest of spare parts or practical repair knowledge on unique features gets much harder over time.  And like my buddy who still supports dBase II, you will find your world curtailed.

So please upgrade to MySQL 5.7 or better yet 8.0.   Those of you running 5.7 can use the upgrade checker utility to help you upgrade to 8.0.

Data Con LA 2020 and New Introductory Video Series on MySQL

 Data Con LA starts October 23rd and I will be speaking on Sunday and I will be speaking on Sunday the 25th on MySQL's NoSQL JSON Store in a talk titled MySQL Without the SQL -- Oh My!

The talk is pre-recorded but I will be live for the question and answer segment. So this is your chance to ask me your question.

Dave's MySQL Basics is a new video based series I am starting to teach the basics of MySQL.  I have been talking with book publishers, hiring managers, DBAs of all levels, and many others.  They have all said they would like to see a simple, modular way to learn MySQL.  So rather than take a few years to produce a book, I am creating a series of videos that will be short (the goal is five minutes or less), not too pedantic (still have to teach the very low level basics), and that can be updated quickly when/if the material changes.  The videos will be on Youtube and course materials I create will be at https://github.com/davidmstokes/MySQLBasics, where you can also find the video links.

The Second Edition of MySQL and JSON - A Practical Programming Guide is now Available

 I am please to announce that the Second Edition of MySQL and JSON - A Practical Programming Guide is now Available.  The new book is twice the length of the first edition due to  the many advancements made by MySQL Engineering over the past two years. 

Who needs this book:   Anyone wanting to take advantage of the MySQL JSON data type for storing JSON formatted data, those wanting to turn relational data into JSON, those who want to make their JSON data relational, and those seeking a through introduction into the use of MySQL as a NoSQL JSON 

document store.  The second edition features even more illustrations, code examples, and covers the many new features added in the last two years including JSON document validation (yes, you can have required fields, type checking, and constraints on your JSON data before it gets into the database), new MySQL Shell features for bulk loading JSON data in parallel, the use of multi-value indexes for JSON array, and much more.

MySQL & JSON - A Practical Programming Guide Second Edition is now available from Amazon in digital and paperback formats. 

The author is a long time user of MySQL and has been a member of the Oracle MySQL Community Team for a decade.  

MySQL + WePay MeetUp

Description

Join this virtual meetup featuring WePay and Oracle MySQL! They will review three great talks on MySQL Compatibility Check, Running MySQL on Kubernetes and Scalable Bookkeeping.

Talk 1: MySQL Compatibility Check

Talk 2: Running MySQL on Kubernetes

Talk 3: Scalable Bookkeeping

Date & Time 

Oct 1, 2020 10:00 AM in Pacific Time (US and Canada)

Register here

MySQL 5.6 End of Life Is Less Than Six Months Away

     If you are running MySQL 5.6 please note that it will hit support End of Life status in February 2021!  MySQL 5.7 has been Generally Available for almost five years and MySQL 8.0 has been out for over two  years.   You need to upgrade as soon as possible.  

    Upgrading to 5.7 is pretty easy. And I heartily suggest that after upgrading to 5.7 that you also upgrade to 8.0  using the upgrade checker utility.

    MySQL 8.0 has a lot of improvements including CTEs, Windowing Functions, Histograms, Multi-value indexes, upgraded JSON support, a contention aware transaction scheduler. dual passwords, and more.  Plus there are InnoDB Cluster, MySQL Router, the New Shell (mysqlsh) and ReplicaSets. Heck, you no longer have to run the old mysql_upgrade script (often a forgotten step) as the install process now does that for you!

    If you have not started planning to upgrade yet, please put it down on your to-do list.  

    MySQL Community Downloads

Three Bad MySQL Query Types You May Be Writing

    One of the problems with Structured Query Language as opposed to languages like C++, Java, Python, or PHP is that it is hard to tell if a query is good or bad just by looking at it.  A programmer with a few months of coding experience can be shown a snippet of code from a project and have a pretty good chance of telling if that code is good or not.  Some call this a 'code smell'.

    A programmer can tell if the code is legible, understandable, and many times if it performs well often times at just a glance.  Want to do an experiment on this?  Go out to Github and check out a handful of random projects.  Good code often just looks good.

    But SQL is different.  It is mostly a declarative language, telling the computer what it wants rather than how to make what it wants. You can random pull SQL queries off Gitthub or Stackoverflow or Reddit and can not tell if a query is really good or really bad.

    Why?  SQL depends a lot on the underlying structure of the data.  Looking for a phone number? Is it in a column designed to hold the phone number, or buried in a long string of data?  Separate country/area code from the main number?  Is a second phone number kept in different records, different columns, or not stored at all?

    Is there relational logic, foreign keys, and how are they implemented?  Are there keys? What do the indexes really index? Are there any histograms?  These things are not evident by just looking at the query. So you end up using some variant of EXPLAIN along with DESCRIBE TABLE to start to dig into things.  

    Plus SQL has a unique learning curve once you get past the basic UPDATE, SELECT, and DELETE commands.  So it is inevitable that people write poor queries.  Or they turn to Object Relational Mappers to write bad queries for them.  

    So on Sunday when I got an urgent plea for help from a well practiced programmer friend who did not have a lot of SQL skills and a new 'to be updated' project filled with horrible queries.  How horrible? Well, read on!

Bad Query Type Number 1 -- Wild Wildcards

    SELECT * FROM foo WHERE x=y;

    Everyone uses the * wildcard to get all the columns from a table.  But what if you need only a few columns of data and the table is a few hundred columns wide, with a few CHAR(255)s, and a pair of BLOBS.  All that data has to read off disk, transferred into memory, and then drained off a network interfaces into an application.  The program code in question wanted an pair of INTs and a DATE.  Not the several thousand other bits of data being pulled out of the database by the query.

    This query, from a glance at the code, was the original core of the program and the proficient programmer was pretty confident that the original table had only a handful of columns when it was created.  But sadly the table got bloated and the original fast performance is now history.

    So use * as a quick-and-dirty to look at the data but please avoid it in production unless your really, really need all of the data.

Bad Query Type Number 2 -- No JOINS

    One of the early developers left a comment that JOINs did not perform adequately.  So what did they do instead?  They read three different tables into memory and pared down the data within the application.  So beside the problems of pulling a lot of data from the database into application the application gets bloated to perform an operation that database should be doing.  

    So where did the original code get the idea that JOINs do not perform?  Well, on the Internet everything lives forever, especially if it is bad or outdated information.  The early developer was nice enough to date their comments and the first version was built in the MySQL 4.x days.  And there were JOINs back in those  but I do not remember their performance being poor.  But in this case this other  developer was still around the company and was available for a quick phone call. Yes, they admitting writing the code and being warned by some bulletin board (Are there still BBS?)  that performance of JOINs was less than optimum.  While I was rewriting the query the author called back and pointed to a very old post where someone was complaining about needing to join 65 tables when the hard coded limit in MySQL was 64 as the original instigator.

    And they there were other URLS of old, bad admonitions against using JOINS.  Folks, a lot has changed over the 25 year life of MySQL. JOINs work very well, support the relational model that you should be using, and put the work on the DATABASE and not the application.  And if you do search the internet for an answer to a problem please try to avoid coding advice that is old enough to vote or buy adult beverages.

Bad Query Type Number 3 -- Obfuscated Queries

    One query was the equivalent of  this:

SELECT (City.name)
    , (Country.name) 
    FROM City 
    JOIN Country on (City.CountryCode = Country.code) 
    WHERE 
        ((City.CountryCode=('USA')) 
        or ((((City.District IS NULL))))) 
        AND (((City.CountryCode IS NOT NULL))) 
limit 10;

    Wow! That is a lot of parentheses!  Looking at the table description had both of the columns being tested against NULL were both created as not being null-able.  The 'or' and 'and' clauses to the WHERE were not immediately evident of why they were there. Well, after another phone call to the original developer I found out the third or forth code developer was a fan of writing tricky to read code for reasons of job security.  And yes they were eventually fired for writing code that even they could not maintain.

    So do not obfuscate code to keep the next developer from figuring out what you are doing as most times you will be that next developer to work on that code but you will not remember you cute little code trick.   Now the optimizer is smart enough to work out the proper query plan but the MySQL optimizer wants to optimize a query each time it sees it; so writing extra clauses puts more load on the optimizer and degrades performance marginally.  Exercise for you -- See how the MySQL optimizer cleans up the above query against the World database, and the query plan may surprise you.

Wrap Up

    So with a little bit of effort on both our parts, the well practiced programmer was able to get acceptable performance out of their software with a promise to refactor the rest of the queries very quickly.  But in one setting we ran in to what I feel are three of the most common types of bad queries sent to MySQL servers, or other database servers.  

Better VIEWs with the WITH CHECK OPTION

     VIEWs have been a handy feature of MySQL for many years but do you know about the WITH CHECK OPTION clause?  The WITH CHECK OPTION clause is used for a updatable views to prohibit the changes to those views that would produce rows which are not included in the defining query.

    VIEW Definition

    Since a lot of SQL novices read my blog, I'd like to start with the definition of a view "Views are stored queries that when invoked produce a result set. A view acts as a virtual table" according the MySQL Manual.

SQL > CREATE VIEW x_city AS 

            SELECT     Name, 

                       CountryCode, 

                       District 

       FROM city;

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.0358 sec)
SQL > SELECT * FROM x_city LIMIT 4;
+----------------+-------------+----------+
| Name           | CountryCode | District |
+----------------+-------------+----------+
| Kabul          | AFG         | Kabol    |
| Qandahar       | AFG         | Qandahar |
| Herat          | AFG         | Herat    |
| Mazar-e-Sharif | AFG         | Balkh    |
+----------------+-------------+----------+
4 rows in set (0.0200 sec)
 SQL > SELECT Name, District FROM x_city limit 4;
+----------------+----------+
| Name           | District |
+----------------+----------+
| Kabul          | Kabol    |
| Qandahar       | Qandahar |
| Herat          | Herat    |
| Mazar-e-Sharif | Balkh    |
+----------------+----------+

    Views are used to obfuscate column names, capture vital queries for later reuse, and many other reasons. For the most part we can treat it as a table. The above example joins data from two tables but we can treat the view as a separate, different table.  As can be seen above we can select all the columns from the view or a subset of the columns defined in the view. 

Updatable Views

    Some views can be used to specify tables to be updated in data change statements. In the example below we will use a simple one integer column table.

.

 SQL >  create view v_2 as select * from t2;

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.0072 sec)

 SQL > select * from v_2;

+----+

| id |

+----+

|  1 |

|  3 |

|  5 |

|  7 |

|  9 |

| 11 |

+----+

6 rows in set (0.0009 sec)

 SQL > insert into v_2 (id) values (99);

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.0060 sec)

  SQL > select * from v_2;

+----+

| id |

+----+

|  1 |

|  3 |

|  5 |

|  7 |

|  9 |

| 11 |

| 99 |

+----+

    The v_2 view updated the underlying table t2.  

WITH CHECK OPTION

    The WITH CHECK OPTION  prevents inserts to rows for which the WHERE clause in the select_statement is not true. The view v_2a only retrieves data where the id value is greater than 4. If it is used in an attempt to update a value less than 5 it will raise and error.

SQL > CREATE VIEW v_2a AS 

        SELECT * FROM t2 WHERE id > 4 WITH CHECK OPTION;

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.0102 sec)

 SQL > SELECT * FROM v_2a;

+----+

| id |

+----+

|  5 |

|  7 |

|  9 |

| 11 |

| 99 |

+----+

5 rows in set (0.0009 sec)

 SQL > insert into v_2a (id) values (2);

ERROR: 1369: CHECK OPTION failed 'demo.v_2a'

    And note the error provides the name of the view and the schema to helpt track it down.

    For more details please refer to the manual page on The View WITH CHECK OPTION Clause

MySQL Comparing INTs and CHARs

     How does MySQL compare INTs with CHARs? I was asked this very question over the weekend and wanted to share that information plus some of the changes in MySQL 8.0.21 in this area.  And yes those changes are pretty big.

Casting

    Computers are good at making comparisons of two values but only if everything else the same.  Comparing an integer with another integer is simple.  Same data with same data type comparisons are a good thing.  But what about when you need to compare a numeric 7 with a "7" where the number is in a string?  In such cases one or both numbers need to be changed into the same basic data type. Imagine your favorite Harry Potter character waving their magic wand and shouting 'accio data' to change two different magical pieces of data into one common data type.  No, Hogwarts was the the reason this conversion is called casting but this 'magic' needs to be made for a good comparison.

    If you read the Optimizer Notes section of the MySQL 8.0.21 Release Notes you will run into a notice that MySQL injects casts to avoid mismatches for numeric and temporal data with string data. The big trick was keeping backward compatibility with previous versions while matching the SQL standard.  Now when the optimizer is comparing numeric and temporal types and the expected data type does not match  it will now add casting operations in the item tree inside expressions and conditions. For instance if you are comparing a YEAR to string they will both be converted to a DOUBLE.

Example

    We have two tables and are comparing an INT to a CHAR.  If we run EXPLAIN ANALYZE of the query we get the details.

explain analyze select * 
from t1 
join t2 on t2.k = t1.k\G

*************************** 1. row ***************************

EXPLAIN: -> Inner hash join (cast(t2.k as double) = cast(t1.k as double))  (cost=4.75 rows=5) (actual time=1.759..1.771 rows=5 loops=1)

    -> Table scan on t1  (cost=0.22 rows=6) (actual time=1.670..1.677 rows=6 loops=1)

    -> Hash

        -> Table scan on t2  (cost=0.75 rows=5) (actual time=0.034..0.043 rows=5 loops=1)

    If we look at the original query we are trying to join two tables where the CHAR t2.k is equal to the INT t1.k.   The magenta highlighted text above shows where both the t2.k and the t1.k columns are cast as doubles.

    Running EXPLAIN without the ANALYZE we can see the query plan's version of the query that has been generated by the optimizer.

explain select * from t1 join t2 on t2.k = t1.k\G
*************************** 1. row ***************************
           id: 1
  select_type: SIMPLE
        table: t2
   partitions: NULL
         type: ALL
possible_keys: NULL
          key: NULL
      key_len: NULL
          ref: NULL
         rows: 5
     filtered: 100
        Extra: NULL
*************************** 2. row ***************************
           id: 1
  select_type: SIMPLE
        table: t1
   partitions: NULL
         type: ALL
possible_keys: NULL
          key: NULL
      key_len: NULL
          ref: NULL
         rows: 6
     filtered: 16.666667938232422
        Extra: Using where; Using join buffer (hash join)
2 rows in set, 1 warning (0.0010 sec)
Note (code 1003): /* select#1 */ select `demo`.`t1`.`id` AS `id`,`demo`.`t1`.`k` AS `k`,`demo`.`t2`.`id` AS `id`,`demo`.`t2`.`k` AS `k` from `demo`.`t1` join `demo`.`t2` where (cast(`demo`.`t2`.`k` as double) = cast(`demo`.`t1`.`k` as double))

    We can see that the original query of select * from t1 join t2 on t2.k = t1.k has been rewritten to select `demo`.`t1`.`id` AS `id`,`demo`.`t1`.`k` AS `k`,`demo`.`t2`.`id` AS `id`,`demo`.`t2`.`k` AS `k` from `demo`.`t1` join `demo`.`t2` where (cast(`demo`.`t2`.`k` as double) = cast(`demo`.`t1`.`k` as double)) by the optimizer.  

    I highly recommend looking at the query plan to help understand what the MySQL server needs to do to make your query work.  

What Is The Difference Between GROUP BY and Windowing Functions? PART II

     Last time we covered the basic differences between GROUP BY and Windowing functions. We ended up with this query:

select distinct count(ID) over (partition by District) as count, 
    CountryCode, 
    count(CountryCode) over (partition by District) as '#', 
    District, 
    SUM(Population) over (partition by District)  as 'Pop City',        SUM(Population) over (partition by CountryCode) as 'Pop Country' from city 
where CountryCode IN ('USA','BEL') 
order by CountryCode,District;

    Which I admit is a little messy. We have three windows over rows with two separate qualifiers.  One of the nice things about Windowing Functions is that they clean up so nicely and also make them easier to read. What we need to do is break out the 'over (...) ' sections.  Let us call the 'partition by District' as D_win and partition by CountryCode as C_win.  

select distinct count(ID) over D_win as count, 
    CountryCode, 
    count(CountryCode) over D_win as '#', 
    District, 

    SUM(Population) over D_win  as 'Pop City', 
    SUM(Population) over C_win  as 'Pop Country' 
from city 
where CountryCode IN ('USA','BEL') 
window C_win as (partition by CountryCode),
D_win as (partition by District)
order by CountryCode,District;

    This is much easier to comprehend and will be much easier to modify.  

GROUP BY and ORDER BY Mutually Exclusive No More!

    Now back to GROUP BY.  

    Prior to MySQL 8.0.12 there was something a few folks tripped over - you cannot also use an ORDER BY clause to sort the results. In other words, ROLLUP and ORDER BY were mutually exclusive in MySQL. But this as changed in '12 and you can no send queries like this:

select region, 

    count(name) as '# counties'  

from country 

group by Region with rollup 

order by Region;

+---------------------------+------------+

| region                    | # counties |

+---------------------------+------------+

| NULL                      |        239 |

| Antarctica                |          5 |

| Australia and New Zealand |          5 |

| Baltic Countries          |          3 |

| British Islands           |          2 |

| Caribbean                 |         24 |

| Central Africa            |          9 |

| Central America           |          8 |

| Eastern Africa            |         20 |

| Eastern Asia              |          8 |

| Eastern Europe            |         10 |

| Melanesia                 |          5 |

| Micronesia                |          7 |

| Micronesia/Caribbean      |          1 |

| Middle East               |         18 |

| Nordic Countries          |          7 |

| North America             |          5 |

| Northern Africa           |          7 |

| Polynesia                 |         10 |

| South America             |         14 |

| Southeast Asia            |         11 |

| Southern Africa           |          5 |

| Southern and Central Asia |         14 |

| Southern Europe           |         15 |

| Western Africa            |         17 |

| Western Europe            |          9 |

+---------------------------+------------+

    The reader of the output still has to know that the NULL entry under the region column is the rolled up total. And a lot of casual readers will be confused by having the total on the first line instead of the traditional placement on the last time. Now you can get the total on the bottom by adding DESC to the ORDER BY clause but now the regions are not ascending alpha order.  Dang trade offs.

    One thing to note is the query cost for the GROUP BY version is 264.40  (and yes these timing are relative to my hardware and should only be used for rough comparisions)

    But lets look at a Windowing Function version of this query:

select  distinct Region, 

        count(Name) over (partition by Region) 

from Country 

order by Region;

    The query cost here is 503.40!  Ouch!  The sort cost alone is 239.0! But Windowing Functions let you move the ORDER BY clause.

select    distinct Region, 

          count(Name) over (partition by Region order by Region) 

from Country;

    And the query cost is again 264.40. Yup, the same as the GROUP BY version.

    We do not have the ROLLUP functionality but as you saw in the last blog that it would not be hard to add.  First let us clean up the window definition.

select distinct Region,    

       count(Name) over w1 

from Country 

window 

    w1 as (partition by Region order by Region);

    Then add a new window definition:

select distinct Region, 

       count(Name) over w1, 

       count(Name) over w2 

from Country 

window 

    w1 as (partition by Region order by Region), 

    w2 as ();

    And the query cost is still 264.40.  

What Is The Difference Between GROUP BY and Windowing Functions? PART I

    I had an question that made me stop in my tracks -- What Is The Difference Between GROUP BY and Windowing Functions?  At one level there is a big difference and at another they are similar, at least in a few respects.

Definitions

    GROUP BY is described as "The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values into summary rows, like "find the number of customers in each country". Another source says Window functions belong to a type of function known as a ‘set function’, which means a function that applies to a set of rows. The word ‘window’ is used to refer to the set of rows that the function works on.

    So both work on sets of rows. But what are the differences?

    Lets start with a goal and for the first example we want to know how many cities are in each District (or state) in the world.city table where the CountryCode = 'USA'. And lets write one query that uses GROUP BY and one query that uses a Windowing Function.  This query will be expanded to include more data just like queries expanded by the 'hey, this is nice but can you also get me ...' method.

Example Queries

    An example using GROUP BY

select count(id), 

       District 
from city 
where CountryCode='usa' 
group by District;

    And an example using a Windowing Function.  If you are unfamiliar with windowing functions the key word to look for is OVER(). 

select distinct count(ID) over (partition by District), 
    District  
 from city 
 where CountryCode='USA';

    Not too much of a difference. What about the query plan?  Using EXPLAIN FORMAT=JSON reveals the query cost is 102.4 for the GROUPY BY and 276.4 for the Windowing Function.  

 Which Query to Use?!?!

    I have always used the Occum's Razor rule when confronted with two equivalent queries and picked the simpler of the two. But while visually these took look similar the performance of the GROUP BY is appreciably better. 

WITH ROLLUP or OVER()??

    So lets make the query work a little harder.  Now we want a total off all the IDs counted and with the GROUP BY version we add WITH ROLLUP.

select count(id), 

        District 
from city 
where CountryCode='usa' 
group by District WITH ROLLUP;

    And at the very end of the output we see the number 274 (the number of rows) and NULL as the name of the district used for the rollup. And yes you are not only stuck with the district name of NULL but explaining that it is a place holder to those wanting this data.  

    The Windowing Function version's output is not as pretty as it adds a repeating column of '274' to each row of output. The difference is now a selection of count(id) over() to the query.

select distinct count(ID) over (partition by District), 

                count(ID) over(), 

District 
from city 
where CountryCode='USA';

    A bit of explanation is needed here.  There are now two Windowing Functions being used in this query.  The first count(ID) is partitioned by the District column while the second, with the empty parens, is not partitioned -- it is counting all the records.

Now Add the Population

    Now let's us pretend we like our queries but now we want to add the sum of the Population column for each district.

select count(id), 
        District, 
        sum(Population) as Pop 
       from city 
        where CountryCode='usa' 
        group by District, Population with rollup

                    limit 5;

    Please note that I am limit the output to ten rows to save the length of this blog from the horrendous level.  Here the GROUP BY has prioritized Population over District and the results are not exactly usable. We are getting the population rolled up for each state but it is probably not obvious at first glance.

+-----------+----------+--------+

| count(id) | District | Pop    |

+-----------+----------+--------+

|         1 | Alabama  | 158216 |

|         1 | Alabama  | 198915 |

|         1 | Alabama  | 201568 |

|         1 | Alabama  | 242820 |

|         4 | Alabama  | 801519 |

|         1 | Alaska   | 260283 |

|         1 | Alaska   | 260283 |

|         1 | Arizona  | 108364 |

|         1 | Arizona  | 109697 |

|         1 | Arizona  | 158625 |

+-----------+----------+--------+

  So lets switch the group by to 'GROUP BY Population, District' to prioritize Population. And what we get is not much better. The count of the cities in the individual districts is gone.  We are not getting the population sum by District with the ROLLUP but the output is not what we want.

+-----------+----------------+-------+

| count(id) | District       | Pop   |

+-----------+----------------+-------+

|         1 | South Carolina | 89063 |

|         1 | NULL           | 89063 |

|         1 | California     | 89089 |

|         1 | NULL           | 89089 |

|         1 | Texas          | 89293 |

|         1 | NULL           | 89293 |

|         1 | Illinois       | 89408 |

|         1 | NULL           | 89408 |

|         1 | Wisconsin      | 89447 |

|         1 | NULL           | 89447 |

+-----------+----------------+-------+

       GROUP BY can prioritize what we group the data by but as you see above it is limited by the mechanics of its definition. So we can very quickly outgrow GROUP BY.

Defenestration

    Windowing Function let you have a little more control over the results.  In the follow example we count the number of IDs per each District and sum the population for each District.      

select distinct count(ID) over (partition by District) as count,            District, 

        SUM(Population) over (partition by District)  as 'Pop' 

from city 

where CountryCode='USA' 

limit 10;

+-------+----------------------+----------+
| count | District             | Pop      |
+-------+----------------------+----------+
|     4 | Alabama              |   801519 |
|     1 | Alaska               |   260283 |
|     9 | Arizona              |  3178903 |
|     1 | Arkansas             |   183133 |
|    68 | California           | 16716706 |
|     9 | Colorado             |  1851149 |
|     5 | Connecticut          |   609087 |
|     1 | District of Columbia |   572059 |
|    15 | Florida              |  3151408 |
|     6 | Georgia              |  1148875 |
+-------+----------------------+----------+

    But let us expand the query to include two countries with the goal of getting the per district and per country information included.

select distinct count(ID) over (partition by District) as count, 

        CountryCode, 

        count(CountryCode) over (partition by District) 

               as 'Cities in District',             

        District, 

        SUM(Population) over (partition by District)  as 'Pop' 

from city 

where CountryCode IN ('USA','BEL') 

order by CountryCode,District 

limit 10;
+-------+-------------+--------------------+---------------+---------+
| count | CountryCode | Cities in District | District      | Pop     |
+-------+-------------+--------------------+---------------+---------+
|     1 | BEL         |                  1 | Antwerpen     |  446525 |
|     2 | BEL         |                  2 | Bryssel       |  239551 |
|     1 | BEL         |                  1 | East Flanderi |  224180 |
|     2 | BEL         |                  2 | Hainaut       |  291762 |
|     1 | BEL         |                  1 | Liège        |  185639 |
|     1 | BEL         |                  1 | Namur         |  105419 |
|     1 | BEL         |                  1 | West Flanderi |  116246 |
|     4 | USA         |                  4 | Alabama       |  801519 |
|     1 | USA         |                  1 | Alaska        |  260283 |
|     9 | USA         |                  9 | Arizona       | 3178903 |
+-------+-------------+--------------------+---------------+---------+

    Now we are partitioning by District over three separate pieces of data.  If we need to add another column for the sum of the population of each country, it is simple addition to the query. We do have to specify a new partitioning factor as now we need to group the rows for the new calculation accordingly.  Unlike using GROUP BY, there is no ambiguity on what is being prioritized. And we are getting the data the way we want.

select distinct count(ID) over (partition by District) as count,            CountryCode,     

        count(CountryCode) over (partition by District) as '#',            District, 

        SUM(Population) over (partition by District)  as 'Pop City',         SUM(Population) over (partition by CountryCode) 

            as 'Pop Country' 

from city 

where CountryCode IN ('USA','BEL') 

order by CountryCode,District 

limit 10;
+-------+-------------+---+---------------+----------+-------------+
| count | CountryCode | # | District      | Pop City | Pop Country |
+-------+-------------+---+---------------+----------+-------------+
|     1 | BEL         | 1 | Antwerpen     |   446525 |     1609322 |
|     2 | BEL         | 2 | Bryssel       |   239551 |     1609322 |
|     1 | BEL         | 1 | East Flanderi |   224180 |     1609322 |
|     2 | BEL         | 2 | Hainaut       |   291762 |     1609322 |
|     1 | BEL         | 1 | Liège        |   185639 |     1609322 |
|     1 | BEL         | 1 | Namur         |   105419 |     1609322 |
|     1 | BEL         | 1 | West Flanderi |   116246 |     1609322 |
|     4 | USA         | 4 | Alabama       |   801519 |    78625774 |
|     1 | USA         | 1 | Alaska        |   260283 |    78625774 |
|     9 | USA         | 9 | Arizona       |  3178903 |    78625774 |
+-------+-------------+---+---------------+----------+-------------+

    This is just scratching the surface of how and when to use Windowing Functions over GROUP BY and just skims the surface of the power of Windowing Functions (and yes, you can neaten things up from the examples). I hope to show in a future post some more of this power.

   

Two MySQL 8.0 Talks this week - DevOps and Features, an upcoming Podcast, and an article on JSON Document Validation

 I have two talks this week on MySQL 8.0 that you can attend virtually. And another session that is one line also plus an article.  Busy week!

First is a follow on to a earlier session I did for the good folks at cPanel want you to register here for MySQL 8.0 changes for DBAs and DevOps on August 12th, 2020  at 2PM CDT. The first talk was mainly for developers and this time I am, heavily covering InnoDB Cluster and features that are of more interest to the folks who keep MySQL instances running.

MergePHP - New MySQL Features That You May Have Missed is on Thursday August 13th at 7:00 Eastern . This is an exciting combination of three MySQL user groups who have joined together for a virtual meeting.

Then on Friday the 14th I am panelist for the JavaScript and Friends conference's panel on keeping your skills relevant in a changing world.

The gold folks at PHP Architect have published and article I

wrote on JSON Document Validation with MySQL  and we are getting setup for me to speak on their podcast on just that subject. 

MySQL InnoDB Cluster, MySQL NDB Cluster, and MySQL Replica Set

    MySQL has had replication for decades but the various options can be confusing.  One social media post I read recently could be summarized with the statement 'there are too many good options but how do I know which is right for me?'

Cluster

    Of all the words used in the computer related world, 'cluster' is the one that I wish we could have found a replacement for as the confusion over the word has created it's own cluster. Since MySQL has InnoDB Cluster and NDB cluster with other vendors using the word we end up with a lot of confusion. Add in clustered indexes and other non replication uses of the word to add more confusion. So which is what and where do we apply then for best performance.

MySQL Replication 101

    The follow is an overview of MySQL replication offerings and the details are in the manual.  And of course there are third party software that are not covered here that may have some utility for you. But so many folks are popping up on social media wanting a 'low cost five nines solution (99.999% up time)' solution or 'want to replicate terabytes of data to servers located around the world with automatic, sub-second fail over' that I thought it would be best to provide this overview.

    Imagine you have two servers with exact copies of the same data on their hardware.  One machine called the primary gets a query with an update/delete/modification and processes that query.  Part of the processing is writing the query (or the results of the query) to a file that the other system, called the replica, copies to its hardware and then applies to its copy of the data.  The end result is that once again both servers again have exact copies of the data.  

    Simple? Easy-peasy? Well then imagine adding in several thousand queries, network latency, differing work loads on the replica, and dozens of other issues that could impact performance. This imaginary situation provides a lot of queries and activities for both servers to juggle.  Just like a busy short order cook, it is possible for orders to get lost or scheduled poorly which in turns leads to unhappy customers.

    There are many ways to manage all this traffic, replication overhead, and administration.  

Simple Replication

    Replication enables data from one MySQL database server, known as a source or primary, to be copied to one or more MySQL database servers known as replicas. Replication is asynchronous by default but there is a semi-synchronous option.  The replicas do not need to be connected permanently to receive updates from a source. And you can configure replication to copy  all databases, selected databases, some databases of your choosing, or even selected tables within a database.

    This is a great way to scale out read traffic, provide a copy of the data for use with backups, or provide a copy of the data for development/test/analytics. The traditional method replicating events from the source's binary log, and requires the log files and positions in them to be synchronized between the source and the replica. A newer method uses global transaction identifiers (GTIDs) and is transactional, therefore it does not require working with log files or positions within these files, which greatly simplifies many common replication tasks. Replication using GTIDs guarantees consistency between source and replica as long as all transactions committed on the source have also been applied on the replica. And GTID based replication is easier to automate.

    MySQL supports three types of synchronization. The original type of synchronization is one-way, asynchronous replication, in which one server acts as the source and one or more other servers act as replicas. This is in contrast to the synchronous replication which is a characteristic of NDB Cluster which is covered later. MySQL 8.0's semisynchronous replication is in addition to the built-in asynchronous replication where a commit is performed on the source blocks before returning to the session that performed the transaction until at least one replica acknowledges that it has received and logged the events for the transaction

    There are two core types of replication format, Statement Based Replication (SBR), which replicates entire SQL statements, and Row Based Replication (RBR), which replicates only the changed rows. You can also use a third variety, Mixed Based Replication (MBR).  For the future it is best to row based replication which has the benefit of only sending the changes to the replicas instead of the query which can reduce traffic size.

NDB Cluster 

    You cell phone provider probably uses NDB (Network Data Base) cluster to track your phone's position relative to the nearest cell tower.  Wikipedia says MySQL Cluster is a technology providing shared-nothing clustering and auto-sharding for the MySQL database management system. It is designed to provide high availability and high throughput with low latency, while allowing for near linear scalability.[3] MySQL Cluster is implemented through the NDB or NDBCLUSTER storage engine for MySQL ("NDB" stands for Network Database).  Note that they drop NDB from the entry.

    An NDB Cluster consists of a set of computers, known as hosts, with each one running one or more processes. These processes, known as nodes, may include MySQL servers (for access to NDB data), data nodes (for storage of the data), one or more management servers, and possibly other specialized data access programs. To assure the shared-nothing standing you will need a lot of seemingly redundant hardware to avoid any one piece of being a point of failure.  But if you want 99.999% down time you need to pay for the redundancy as you send your data between servers and data centers. 

    The data stored in the various data nodes for NDB Cluster can be mirrored. The cluster can handle failures of individual data nodes with no other impact than that a small number of transactions are aborted due to losing the transaction state, so write your applications so that they expect to handle transaction failure and retry commits if needed.

    So other than the cost of the hardware, the cost of the networking gear, the salary for some smart folks to run operations,  you really should get an enterprise subscription to get access to MySQL Enterprise Monitor to watch the various components.  

    NDB Cluster is missing some features found in the mainstream MySQL server such a index prefixes, savepoints/rollbacks are ignored, no generated columns, and statement based replication only among others.

    This is your option if you need to be able to have less than 27 minutes of down time a year or really want synchronous replication.

MySQL InnoDB Cluster

    MySQL InnoDB Cluster provides a complete high availability solution for MySQL servers. You use the MySQL Shell which includes the AdminAPI which enables you to easily configure and administer a group of at least three MySQL server instances to function as an InnoDB Cluster. Each MySQL server instance runs MySQL Group Replication, which provides the mechanism to replicate data within InnoDB Clusters, with built-in failover.

  

    You application communicates through a copy of MySQL Router which is a lightweight Level 4 proxy.  MySQL Router then forwards your queries to the cluster.  In the above example we have two machines answering SELECT or read queries only and another server that can handle any query.  The router decides who gets what, will load balance, and works with the cluster machines to avoid problems.  If one of the machine goes offline, Router and the remaining machines will automatically handle the issue but once again make sure your application checks return codes so it can retry a commit.

    InnoDB Cluster is built on MySQL Group Replication which provides a distributed state machine replication with strong coordination between servers. The servers coordinate themselves automatically when they are part of the same group. The group can operate in a single-primary mode with automatic primary election, where only one server accepts updates at a time or for more advanced users the group can be deployed in multi-primary mode, where all servers can accept updates, even if they are issued concurrently. This power comes at the expense of applications having to work around the limitations imposed by such deployments.

    There is also a built-in group membership service that keeps the view of the group consistent and available for all servers at any given point in time. So servers can leave and join the group and the view is updated accordingly. 

    A really cool feature to InnoDB cluster is a plug-in that allows a new machine to be fully loaded with data from a donor machine by making it a clone of the donor.  Very fast, low fuss, and a new machine joining the cluster is fully populated with data.

    MySQL ReplicaSet

    MySQL ReplicaSet is the newest of these offerings with many of the benefits of InnoDB cluster but mainly lacking automatic fail over if the primary stops for some reason.  If you need the high availability, automatic fail over you want InnoDB cluster. But if you have simpler needs and do not occasionally mind promoting a secondary to primary, then you may want ReplicaSet.

    ReplicaSet is MySQL 8.0 only, is GTID only, only supports Row Bases Replication, does not allow replication filters, and there is no automatic fail over.  So if you needs are simpler this is a step up from generic replication and highly recommended due to the Clone plug-ins ability to bring a new node online so quickly.

    Mixes

    You can replicate from NDB or InnoDB Cluster to regular semi/async MySQL servers. So if you want the power of InnoDB cluster but want a safe server out of the clusters for backups or analytics.  

    So What Do I Choose?

    This depends on your needs. Ferraris, I am told, are wonderful cars but they are not made to be dump trucks, fire engines, or low cost grocery getters.

    If you can live with the limitations of NDB need to replicate a) between data centers, b) have minimal down time, c) and have the budget to support a&b then I recommend NDB cluster.  I do know of folks replication between data centers with InnoDB Cluster or generic replication too but NDB was designed to do this all with the minimal down time.

    Need high availability with automatic fail over?  InnoDB cluster.

    Or is your replication need not as sophisticated? Then I recommend ReplicaSET.

Which Account Belongs to Whom or a GCOS Field Equivalent for MySQL Accounts

Last week I received an urgent email asking to move the time of  my performance review up a few hours. And the email sender was not in my management structure and was someone unfamiliar to me. Being a former  Xerox employee, I checked my others emails for notice of a reorganization.  Then I realized the person in question was seeking the other David Stokes at Oracle.  Yup two of us with the same name at the same company. Whew!

Coincidentally MySQL 8.0.21 added a new ability that allows you to store information about an account similar to the way the GCOS field is supposed to be used for in the UNIX/Linux world. Back in time many decades ago, account names were limited in length and the GCOS field was populated with the account's user name, office room number, office phone number, and some other relevant information.  This was the way the system administrator could contact the individual using the account directly. 

The mysql.user table has evolved to 51 fields but only as of 8.0.21 did you have a way to record who was actually using the account.  Or let others know why the accounts exists or other meta data about the account.

For an example I created an account and added a comment about the account.

CREATE USER 'dstokes'@'localhost' 
IDENTIFIED by 'S3cr3t!'  
COMMENT '{ "user" : "Dave"  }';

And the information is stored in a column named User_attributes. 

select User_attributes from user WHERE User='dstokes'\G
*************************** 1. row ***************************
User_attributes: {"metadata": {"comment": "{ \"user\" : \"Dave\"  }"}}
2 rows in set (0.0010 sec)

or you can use the word ATTRIBUTE in the place of the keyword COMMENT.  We do use 'comment' someplace else in the world of Structured Query Language so I would personally prefer ATTRIBUTE in this case.

CREATE USER 'jack'@'localhost' 
IDENTIFIED BY 'XXX123!!!' 
ATTRIBUTE '{ "test" : "yes" }';

Cool, eh?

ALTER USER supporst both keywords.

alter user 'jack'@'localhost' 
ATTRIBUTE '{ "foo" : "Example" }';
SELECT User_attributes from user where User='jack';
+-------------------------------------------------+
| User_attributes                                 |
+-------------------------------------------------+
| {"metadata": {"foo": "Example", "test": "yes"}} |
+-------------------------------------------------+

And please note that reusing a key updates the content. Here I reuse 'foo' and the contents are updated.

alter user 'jack'@'localhost' 
ATTRIBUTE '{ "foo" : "Example revised" }';

SELECT User_attributes from user where User='jack';
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| User_attributes                                         |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| {"metadata": {"foo": "Example revised", "test": "yes"}} |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.0005 sec)


Please remember that the JSON data type column is limited to a gig of data so you can not go too crazy recording information.  But please do start adding some account meta data to help identify your accounts.